Method and Theory in Archaeology
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Spring
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Step 1, due March 22, 2006:
Preliminary TITLE and description of topic. These may be submitted earlier, if you wish to get started right away on your topic!
Step 3, due April 5, 2006:
Title
Tentative list of sources, submitted in full bibliographic format
ABSTRACT and/or rough OUTLINE
Step 4, due April 26, 2006:
FINAL PAPER. A grading penalty will apply to late papers.
Choose an anthropological topic that (a) seems interesting to you, (b) relates largely or entirely to archaeology; and (c) includes a substantial discussion of important issues of method and theory. Do not define your topic so broadly that you are forced to cover it on only a very superficial level. Nor should you make your topic so specific that you will not be able gather much information about if from the bibliographic sources at hand. Take care not to dwell too much on the reporting of data or on reconstructions of culture history; remember, this is a course on method and theory. Feel free to discuss your topic with me before you get very far along in the research process!
Some examples:
The clash between processual and postprocessual archaeology: has this had a positive impact on the discipline? Has it undermined the values, principles, and public confidence in scientific methods? And many questions relating to this topic.
How does contract archaeology work? What are the laws, what is the archaeological infrastructure they have created in each state, how are they enforced, what are the career options, what's it like to be a contract archaeologist, what are the challenges, frustrations, and rewards, etc.
What can archaeological surveys and settlement pattern studies tell us about the past? Examples? Limitations? Methods?
How has modern-day archaeology dealt with issues of sampling in archaeology? Lots of possibilities here, on either a mathematical/ probabilistic level, or a more conceptual/ philosophical level of how archaeologists attempt to reconstruct a broad understanding of the past based on the narrow glimpses they retrieve in actual fieldwork.
Strengths, limitations, applications, new directions, recent advances, and examples of specific dating methods in archaeology (there are many possible choices beyond radiocarbon and dendrochronology!).
Recent advances in radiocarbon dating, especially in calibration procedures, and how they are impacting the discipline.
Strengths, limitations, applications, new directions, recent advances, and examples of specific methods of determining what's below ground, without digging.
Applications, potential, and examples of remote sensing and GIS in archaeological research.
Learn about one or more specific methods used to investigate prehistoric diet, health & nutrition in prehistoric populations.
Contributions of phytolith analysis to archaeological research.
What can scientific archaeology learn from mortuary analysis, regarding diet, health, subsistence, gender roles, social structure, status differentiation, etc.? Give some examples. (You should probably choose some subset from this list to keep in manageable).
The "engendering" of modern-day archaeology: how has the profession become more sensitive to, inquisitive about, and better aware of interesting research questions concerning gender in ancient societies?
Ethical issues in archaeology: is it ethically acceptable for archaeology retrieve and investigate material remains of real people from the past, for the purpose of satisfying public curiosity and/or theory-driven research of professional archaeology? Who owns the past?
How does past or ongoing archaeological research at a specific site shed light on methodological and/or theoretical issues of broader relevance to the discipline?
How do archaeologists investigate ancient exchange networks? Provide examples, and explore how such research can contribute to broader issues.
Related to but more specific than the above: discuss the basic procedure of neutron activation analysis, its strengths and limitations, and examples of its application in archaeological research.
Lithic analysis: learn about some of the laboratory and analytical methods used by archaeologists to investigate flintknapping techniques, flaking patterns, use wear analysis, blood residue analysis, etc. concerning chipped stone tools.
Ethnoarchaeology: find and report on some examples of how archaeologists have observed and studied ongoing practices by traditional groups to better understand the archaeological remains we retrieve from the past.
Do the same as above but for experimental archaeology.
Middle-range theory: what are the broad issues and challenges here for anthropological archaeology?
Museums and archaeology: explore any of many complex issues of how these relate to each other.
And so on! Check with me if you'd like further guidance.
Most of your research should be based on professional, scholarly sources, as opposed to popular, non-academic sources targeted at a general audience. Often, the presence or absence of citations and a list of works cited or bibliography) will indicate if a reference is professional or popular. Ask a reference librarian (see below), or me, or both, for help in finding sources. Start early! You may wish to acquire some sources from other libraries and/or via interlibrary loan. Try searching for topics and authors via on-line catalogues at major research institutions, to at least find out what printed sources exist, and who wrote them. Try to gather as many sources as you can, to get a broader grasp of the research that has been done.
You may include a few Internet sources, but your paper should be based mainly on conventional, published sources in books, professional journals, government documents, etc. The Internet and various on-line reference tools should be used mainly as a current means of building a finding out who is publishing what, where, and when; in other words, as a means of building a bibliography of more conventional sources. There may be some exceptions to this, but it would be wise to consult with me before relying too heavily on the Internet.
One step (of many) in your search for sources may be to consult either the CMU Library's Social Science Resources web page, or the reference librarian who manages it (Rui Wang). Here is one of the useful Internet links she developed for anthropology:
http://www.lib.cmich.edu/subjectguides/socialsciences/anthropology.htm
Depending on content and writing style, a reasonable target length for the main body of the text might be about 6-10 typed pages, not including the title page, abstract, and works cited pages. This is not a full-semester term paper; make it a concerted, relatively focused undertaking on a topic that personally interests you, and that is manageable within the time span of the final several weeks of the semester.
Use a formal writing style, with no contractions, no slang or colloquial expressions, and no sentence fragments or run-ons. Do not address the readers as "you." Avoid spelling errors; use a computer spell-check or a dictionary!
Assume your readers are reasonably intelligent people who have a basic knowledge of anthropology and might potentially be interested in your subject. Do not assume that they know much about your specific research topic; some might be totally unfamiliar with it, while others could be experts ready to pounce on any errors in logic, evidence, or documentation you might make. Assume that your paper might be read by a widespread, diverse, and anonymous readership, rather than by just your instructor. Take care to define how you are using any terms that might not be familiar to a general audience. By the time you begin writing, you should feel knowledgeable on your topic and be ready to educate your readers on what you have learned.
Title Page
Abstract: This may appear either (a) somewhere on the title page or (b) by itself on a second, unnumbered page, with the word "Abstract" centered at the top as heading. This should be what is called a "descriptive abstract," a single paragraph consisting of a few sentences that describe what is covered in the main body of the paper.
Body: This is the main part of your paper, in which you present the findings of your research. Page 1 begins here (this and all subsequent pages should be numbered). Feel free to use headings and subheadings (any format), but this is not required. If you do, you should still develop smooth transitions that help the reader shift from one topic to the next in your text. The body should be double spaced throughout--between lines and between paragraphs. Use consistent margins throughout the paper. Margins around the actual text should be about 1" on the top, bottom, left, and right. Include page numbers! Put them within that margin, i.e. less that 1" from the top or bottom edge of the paper (your choice). Use a conventional (rather than ultra-artistic/Expressionistic) font sized about 10 or 12 points (=12 or 10 cpi), in black (not pink) ink.
In-text Citations: For those of you who have not written research papers, use any standard guidelines for research papers (such as MLA or APA), or the common style guide in many anthropology publications (e.g. American Antiquity; American Anthropologist). Here's an example of in-text citation:
... text to be referenced ... (Jones 1992: 264).
This indicates that the referenced idea, argument, or data in the sentence was published by Jones in 1992 on p. 264 of that article in that publication. The complete citation, including the full page length of the article in a journal or edited volume, is specified only in the Works Cited (see below). I will not insist on strict adherence to any specific style guide, but you should take care to reference and give credit to the sources you are using.
Direct Quotes: Use them sparingly, if at all. Usually, the only good reason to directly quote passages from a published source is if there is something special about the wording you wish to call attention to. Otherwise, direct quotes are an inappropriate means of conveying information about your topic. Work the information, ideas, and/or opinions into your own discussion, and give credit as warranted via in-text citations. Your finished paper should be mainly your own composition, rather than a patchwork of direct quotes pasted into a collage.
Works Cited: This section begins on a separate page numbered in sequence after the last page of the body of the text. The heading "Works Cited" (without quotation marks) should appear at the top. Again, use any standard style guide in making your bibliographic entries. Again, I will allow some flexibility in your choice of a bibliographic style guide, but be sure to include the basic material that a reader would need to track down that source if interested.
Important: The Works Cited section should list only those sources you have actually cited in the text, and every source you have cited. Be certain you understand what PLAGIARISM is, and how to avoid it! Blatant copying will be penalized severely!
Edit your rough draft, proofread it very carefully, then do so again. Staple all sections together (or insert into any sort of binder if you wish), and turn it in! Assume the world of modern technology will be on the verge of collapse on the afternoon of the due date, from computers to printers to staplers, and plan ahead for such calamities.