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Study Guide: Richard II
Shakespeare’s history plays were his most commercially successful products. His audience expressed their relatively new patriotic fervor by attending narratives of British history and monarchs over and over again, much as Americans enjoy patriotic parades and civic pageants even though the elements of pageantry and narrative are utterly familiar. We must not mistake these “history plays” for actual history, though — Shakespeare did not feel compelled to follow the actual historical facts too closely. Moreover, his main source, Holinshed’s Chronicles of the Kings of England, was designed more to be flattering to Henry VIII than to be strictly factual.
Richard II tells the troubling story of a king deposed and murdered by one (Henry Bolingbroke) whose claim to the throne is superior morally, but not in terms of bloodline. This raises the ancient problem of the king’s two bodies, or the paradox that the monarch is simultaneously a human being and the occupant of an eternal and divinely-appointed position.
Shakespeare in this play represents the “king’s two bodies” by creating two characters who both are kings, but as human beings are a study in contrasts. In literary terms, Richard and Bolingbroke are foils for one another.
The play also celebrates the triumph of social order, endorsing the power of the family that would eventually produce Elizabeth I. As your text’s introduction notes, the tetralogy that is this play, the two parts of Henry IV, and Henry V make up a study of the making of a good king. We do not meet that king (Henry V) in this play, but we meet his father and watch him sow the seeds of political stability for England. This means, of course, that we should also note in Richard the qualities of bad (or less good) kingship.
We also hear a number of speeches about the importance of good leadership to the social and political health of the nation. Look for repeated use (especially by John of Gaunt) of imagery that imagines the state as a body — either healthy or diseased, depending on what’s happening at the moment.
Other recurring images are the Wheel of Fortune (a medieval image of human experience as a constantly turning wheel, in which those who are riding high on the wheel in wealth, happiness or power can always expect to be on the downward side soon, and vice versa), various references to astrological events, comparisons of the king to a gardener or farmer, and comparisons of the Richard to Christ (usually made by Richard himself).
Following is a brief synopsis of the events portrayed in the play (refer to the genealogical chart of “The Lancastrian Kings” on page A-70 in the back of your text to keep track of who’s related to whom). Important characters are marked at their first appearance in bold print.
1.1 — King Richard hears the appeal of Henry Bolingbroke, who accuses Thomas Mowbray (the Duke of Norfolk) of treason. Bolingbroke (referred to by some characters as the Duke of Hereford) suspects that Mowbray is the murderer of Richard’s uncle, the Duke of Gloucester (Thomas of Woodstock). Mowbray denies killing him, but admits to some responsibility through neglecting his duty in some unspecified way. He calls Bolingbroke a traitor in return, demanding that Bolingbroke fight him to the death to prove who’s the honorable man. (Both men, of course, are pretty certain that Richard ordered the death of his uncle, but neither can admit that openly.) Richard asks them to resolve their difference without bloodshed, but when both men insist on fighting, he agrees to allow them a public duel.
1.2 — John of Gaunt, Bolingbroke’s father and Richard’s uncle, and his sister-in-law, the widow of the Duke of Gloucester, argue about whether Gaunt should avenge his brother’s (Gloucester’s) death. Gaunt argues that he owes allegiance more to the king than to his own family; moreover, going against the king is like going against God, who placed Richard on the throne. Gaunt (and the nation) is in an impossible situation: God’s representative (Richard) is responsible for the murder of Gloucester, so how can anyone but God punish Richard? Dissatisfied, the Duchess leaves.
1.3 — The tournament: Bolingbroke and Mowbray meet to fight a ritualized duel, preceded by many speeches, in front of the King and his court. Just before they begin to fight, however, the King stops the duel by throwing his warder (staff) down. He then announces that he will settle the disagreement between the two men by banishing them both from England, Mowbray for life and Bolingbroke for ten years. Despite the arbitrariness of Richard’s decision, both men accept their sentence graciously. Richard, noticing the John of Gaunt is distressed at his son’s banishment, reduces the sentence by four years (to six). Gaunt is not much impressed by this act of royal “generosity;” he expects to die before he can see his son again anyway. Father and son say farewell, with Bolingbroke asserting that his deep love for his country will not fade during his absence.
1.4 — King Richard discusses Bolingbroke’s journey out of England with his advisors, noting that several reports have come in that many English commoners cheered him on his way, and that Bolingbroke’s way with the commoners was ingratiating and humble, which seemed to inspire their love. Richard announces that it will be necessary to levy a new tax to finance the war against the Irish rebels, which he intends to lead in person. At the sudden news that his uncle, John of Gaunt, is on his deathbed, Richard cheers up, hoping to finance the Irish wars with the estate of Gaunt that will revert to the Crown in Bolingbroke’s absence.
2.1 — On his deathbed, Gaunt prophesies at length that England will suffer because of Richard’s poor management. Richard arrives with his entire court. Gaunt accuses Richard of being a bad king — of profiting personally from his office, of rewriting the law to his own benefit, of unfairly taxing his subjects, etc. Richard ignores the old man’s raving and, after Gaunt is carried out and dies in the next room, announces that he’s seizing his uncle’s estate. The Duke of York (another uncle of Richard’s and brother of Gaunt’s) objects, noting that Gaunt’s heir (Bolingbroke) still lives and that Richard’s action would be illegal according to British common law. Richard ignores this uncle, too, and exits to ride off to Ireland. Northumberland and other noblemen remain behind to complain about Richard’s mismanagement and to suggest to each other that Bolingbroke (who they’ve heard is at that moment sailing back to England) be greeted and proclaimed King in Richard’s absence.
2.2 — The Queen confides to some of Richard’s courtiers (Bushy and Bagot) that she has forebodings of something terrible about to happen. They try to comfort her, but are interrupted by another courtier, Green, who brings news of Bolingbroke’s return to England. The Queen is in despair at the news, and is joined by York, who confirms that Bolingbroke’s return apparently means overthrow for Richard — the commoners, tired of taxation, will surely support Bolingbroke. A servant brings news that John of Gaunt’s widow has died, increasing the feeling of disaster. Bushy and Green decide to join other courtiers in hiding at Bristol Castle, Gaunt’s former home. Bagot, loyal to his king, plans to join Richard in Ireland.
2.3 — Bolingbroke rides into England with his ally, Northumberland, gathering more supporters as they go. They meet with Bolingbroke’s and Richard’s uncle York, who scolds Bolingbroke for threatening the crown. Bolingbroke courteously denies seeking the crown, asserting that he has only come to claim his own inheritance (the Dukedom of Lancaster, his father’s former title). York is skeptical, urging Bolingbroke not to travel with an army lest his intentions be misunderstood. He fears the worst, but promises Bolingbroke to remain neutral in the issue. Bolingbroke invites York to accompany them to Bristol Castle, which he plans to reclaim from Bushy, Green, and the other courtiers occupying it, but York declines.
2.4 — The captain of the Welsh army, which has been supporting Richard in Ireland, tells Richard’s supporter Salisbury that because they have not heard from Richard in ten days, and because of certain astronomical omens, they assume he’s dead and will return home. Salisbury is unable to convince him otherwise and, after the captain leaves, prophesies Richard’s imminent fall.
3.1 — Bolingbroke has retaken Bristol Castle (his ancestral home) and has captured Bushy and Green. He condemns them to death for “foul wrongs” to Richard — for leading him into dissipated ways of some unspecified sort (possibly sexual). Bolingbroke sends word of his friendship and support to the queen. He exits to join Glendower, the Welsh warlord, confirming that the desertion of the Welsh army was caused more by loyalty to Bolingbroke than fear of Richard’s death.
3.2 — Richard returns to the coast of England (in Wales) and makes a sickly sentimental show of happiness to be back on English soil. Aumerle (York’s son) and the Bishop of Carlisle remind Richard that Bolingbroke is a present threat, to which Richard confidently replies that “an anointed king” can never be threatened by a mere mortal like Bolingbroke. Salisbury brings the news that the Welsh have gone over to Bolingbroke’s side; Richard is frightened but regains his prideful composure in a moment. However, as soon as Scroop enters saying he’s got bad news (but before he even hears what the bad news is), Richard hysterically begins to mourn the death of his kingdom and himself. Scroop confirms his worst fears, announcing that Bolingbroke is attracting just about every able-bodied man and boy in England to his side. At Scroop’s news that Bushy and Green have “made their peace” with Bolingbroke (i.e., been killed by him), Richard assumes they have turned traitor and begins to curse his former friends’ names, until Scroop assures him that they did indeed die for him. Richard indulges in a lengthy, self-pitying speech as his advisors nervously try to get him to take decisive action. They remind him that what supporters he has will hardly be encouraged by his despair. Richard ignores their encouragement and goes to sulk at Flint Castle.
3.3 — Bolingbroke approaches Flint Castle, still insisting (though less convincingly) that he has no ambition to seize the crown. He sends word to Richard of his total loyalty on the condition that his ancestral title be returned and his banishment revoked. They walk into the castle quietly and respectfully, and Richard appears on the battlements above him. Richard’s first words are complaints that, because Bolingbroke has not knelt to him, he can only assume Bolingbroke means to usurp him. Northumberland (speaking for Bolingbroke) assures Richard they have come as loyal subjects. Despite Aumerle’s advice to negotiate carefully with Bolingbroke, Richard gives way to hysterical despair again and descends to ground level unwillingly. Even though Bolingbroke humbly kneels to him, Richard sarcastically says “What you will have, I’ll give,” implying that it’s not just his own title but the crown Bolingbroke wants. He agrees (implying he has no choice) to accompany Bolingbroke to London.
3.4 — Back at York’s home, the Queen and her courtiers walk around the garden, learning from the gardener that Richard has been “seized” by Bolingbroke. Despairing, the Queen heads for London to meet Richard.
4.1
— Bolingbroke reopens the case of the death of his uncle Gloucester, this time
with Richard’s courtier Bagot as a witness. Bagot accuses Aumerle, who
challenges Bagot to a duel (throwing down his gage or glove). Other lords
(Fitzwater, Harry Percy, and others) join in accusing Aumerle, with only Surrey
choosing to defend him. Aumerle attempts to challenge all his accusers
individually (as Mowbray and Bolingbroke did in the first scene), but runs out
of gages (gloves) to throw, begging someone to lend him a spare. It is
determined that only the testimony of Mowbray (the original conspirator,
banished along with Bolingbroke) can resolve this issue; unfortunately, Mowbray
has died overseas while fighting on the side of the Catholic Church against the
Turks. Bolingbroke (unlike Richard in the earlier confrontation) interrupts the
meaningless ritual before it gets to the point of dueling, planning to try the
case in a formal trial (as opposed to trial of arms — implying that
Bolingbroke’s rule will be more modern and legal, less medieval and
tradition-bound). York enters and brings Bolingbroke word that Richard will
abdicate; Bolingbroke agrees with apparent reluctance to ascend the throne.
Bishop Carlisle objects, warning all present (in a speech that parallels Gaunt’s
in 2.1) that such an overturn of the natural order will spell ruin for England.
For his efforts, Carlisle is arrested and told he will be executed as a traitor.
Richard enters, complaining
that he’s having trouble learning how to bow to someone else. He holds his
crown out to Bolingbroke but, as Bolingbroke takes it, refuses to let go, so
that for a moment the crown is held suspended between the two men. Richard
takes this opportunity to soliloquize about the Wheel of Fortune. He finally
lets go of the crown, comforting himself that he is also letting go of the cares
and responsibilities of kingship. However, he is also asked to sign a
confession of “grievous crimes” committed by him against England, which he is
less willing to accept than the idea that fate is against him. He stalls for
time, asking for a mirror in which he contemplates his reflection and then
shatters the glass. Bolingbroke tries to be polite, but when Richard asks
permission to leave, Bolingbroke orders that he be taken to the Tower, the
traditional place for keeping prisoners of state. After they leave, Aumerle
hints to Carlisle and an abbot that they need to find some way to “rid the realm
of this pernicious blot,” meaning Bolingbroke.
5.1 — The Queen meets Richard on the road to the Tower, where he tries to
“comfort” her in a scene reminiscent of Christ’s comforting the mourning women
on the road to Calvary. His comfort is of the usual self-pitying kind, however,
and the Queen chides Richard for despairing when he has lost only his crown, not
his reason or his soul. Richard sends the Queen back to her home in France.
Northumberland arrives announcing that Richard is to go to Pomfret Castle rather
than the Tower. Richard prophesies that Northumberland, who helped Bolingbroke
gain the crown, will soon find that Bolingbroke no longer trusts him, and the
two co-conspirators will turn on each other (this will come true in 1 Henry
IV). Richard also knows that the more remote location (Pomfret) is more
dangerous for him than the more public Tower; he again stalls by making speeches
of farewell to the Queen (comparing his separation from her to his own
separation from his crown), kissing her again and again.
5.2 — The Duke of York reports to his wife, the Duchess of York, that Bolingbroke has been enthusiastically welcomed as king by the London populace, while Richard has had trash thrown at him. The report of Richard’s calm acceptance of his humiliation further intensifies the association with Christ’s passion. Their son, Aumerle, enters to tell them that he has lost his dukedom because he supported Richard. He carries with him a letter linking him to a conspiracy to kill Bolingbroke, which York discovers. York rides away to report his son’s treason to the king (Bolingbroke), while the Duchess sends Aumerle after to try to stop him. (This scene parallels 1.2, with the Duke following Gaunt in the old family tradition of being will to sacrifice a son to the concept of the divine right of kings, and the Duchess arguing for family loyalty.)
5.3 — Bolingbroke — now King Henry — is worried about his son, young Henry (who will be the Hal of Henry IV and the King Henry of Henry V), who is developing a reputation for loose morals and wild living. Aumerle bursts in, begging for a pardon even though he hasn’t been accused of anything yet. Confused, the King grants him an unconditional pardon. York enters and accuses his own son of treason, followed by the Duchess who begs for mercy for Aumerle. In the face of all this begging, the King honors his promise and pardons Aumerle (thereby reversing the crime of unfair banishment and seizure of lands that Richard imposed on the Gaunt family). Aumerle’s partners in conspiracy are condemned to death, though.
5.4 — Exton, a supporter of King Henry’s, interprets Henry’s words (unheard by the audience), “have I no friend will rid me of this living fear,” as referring to Richard, and as directed at himself. He plans to murder Richard to gain the King’s favor.
5.5 — Richard passes the time in captivity by constructing elaborate metaphors comparing the world to a prison. He converses with the royal groom (horse-attendant) who tells him his favorite horse has appeared to carry King Henry just as proudly as he carried King Richard. Richard uses this as another opportunity to remark bitterly about the wheel of fortune. An attendant brings in food, but refuses to taste it first as has been customary. Richard, learning that the orders not to taste the food came from Exton, suspects poison and beats the attendant. Exton rushes in and, in the ensuing swordfight, kills Richard (Richard kills two men first), although he immediately regrets the deed.
5.6 — King Henry receives word that the plots against him have been suppressed and the traitors executed. Carlisle is brought before him but the King, showing his reverence to the Church, merely sentences Carlisle to live out his days in seclusion. Finally, Exton brings the body of Richard. The King angrily remarks, “Though I did wish him dead, I hate the murderer,” and Exton receives not reward but banishment — Bolingbroke comparing him to Cain, the first murderer in the Old Testament. Ironically, Henry ends exactly where Richard was at the beginning of the play — banishing a lord for carrying out an order of murder. However, Henry resolves to bury Richard with full honors and to atone for his death by making a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The play ends abruptly because it will be continued in Henry IV, Part 1.
Richard II — Plot Diagram
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ACT I
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ACT II |
ACT III |
ACT IV |
ACT V
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RICHARD
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BOLINGBROKE |
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Ritual Duel (I.1) |
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Ritual Pardon
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Gaunt’s Prophecy |
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Carlisle’s Prophecy (IV.1)
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Leaves England |
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Aumerle Accused
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Agrees to Meet Bolingbroke (III.2)
Verbal Abdication Catches Bushy/Green
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Crown & Mirror Scene |
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Banishment |
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Murdered
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BOLINGBROKE |
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RICHARD |
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