Chapter 2 – How Psychologists Do Research

I. What Makes It Scientific?

A. Critical thinking criteria

1. Leads one to develop hypotheses from a theory

B. Following “scientific method”

1. Develop specific hypotheses

a. precision and skepticism

2. Design study to test hypotheses

a. falsifiability and confirmation bias (or “risky predictions”)

3. Examine data from study

a. reliance on empirical evidence

4. Interpret findings

C. Replication

1. Openness

II. Research Methods (see chart, pg. 56)

A. Case studies

B. Observational studies

1. naturalistic

2. lab

C. Psychological tests and surveys

1. standardization, norms, representative sample

2. reliability

a. test-retest (from one time to the next)

b. inter-rater (from one rater to the next)

c. alternate forms (from one test form to the next)

3. validity

a. content (does it measure what it’s supposed to?)

b. criterion (does it predict what it’s supposed to?)

D. Correlational Studies

1. correlations

a. can be positive and negative

b. scatterplots

2. tested via correlation coefficient

3. correlation ≠ causation

4. variables are measured, but not manipulated

E. Experiments

1. variables are both measured AND manipulated

2. only way to determine causality*

3. independent and dependent variables

4. experimental vs. control conditions

5. Additional Controls: random assignment, single- and double-blinds

6. *criticized on grounds of artificiality and lack of generalization

III. Statistical Analysis (Examining Your Data)

A. Descriptive stats: mean, median, range, variability, standard deviation

B. Inferential stats: significance tests

IV. Following Up

A. Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal studies

B. Alternative results: effect sizes, clinical significance

C. Meta-analyses

V. Ethical Considerations

A. Informed consent

B. Risk vs. benefits

C. Use of deception

D. Are there instances of research that should never be allowed?